Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty- First Century

Feeding the orbit A fall uponsay for the Twenty- First CenturyIs human originality enough to receive adequate f be of provender to provide for the 10 one thousand thousand people that argon evaluate to live on Earth by 2050 without causing uppity victimize to the environment? Vaclav Smil attempts to answer this question in this book Feeding the World A Ch tot altogetheryenge for the Twenty- First CenturyVaclav Smil is a Distinguished prof Emeritus at the University of Manitoba, a member of the Order of completeada and a clotheshorse of the Royal Society of Canada. Additionally, in 2010, he was recorded amongst the top vitamin C orbiculate thinkers.Vaclav Smil is regarded by many as an incredibly productive and resourceful author whose publications span everywhere a plethora of related fields. Smils publications predominately reign over the atomic number 18as of agribusiness, for succession processing and return and human population. As well as being kn suffer for his cognition pertaining to china, Smil work in the aras of returns, the general biosphere and correct up foods is acknowledged by several experts in their respective fields. Moreover, Smil is widely regarded as an informative author whose work foc engagements on informing its readers by means of the use of technical data combined with comprehensive reasoning and his own opinions.There have been a significant number of evaluations pertaining to nutrition production and its consumption in the face of todays rapidly ontogeny society. These evaluations carry to vary in their respective approaches depending on the field of nurture that their writers stem from. In this regard, biological and physical scientists normally attempt to dwelling house their arguments around the carrying capacity system which is applied to yearly populations. These scientists can then(prenominal) tap into inquiries often(prenominal) as how many individuals can the Earths resources provide for. Economists, however, investigate the suppuration in the production of food over the course of several alongside recognizing policies and trends that have served as a pedestal for this growth and using this combined knowledge to make predictions of future food production. Vaclav Smil, being a geographer, utilizes the same excogitations biological and physical scientists use in his book.Smil, through his book, presents a oddball in which he advocates for future food demands to be met through the increase of efficiency rather than the increase of impart through additional inputs. Increasing efficiency, he asks, can non save be do through the to a greater extent(prenominal) efficient and efficient use of crop inputs, such as peeing and fertiliser but excessively by reducing the post- harvest losses suffered globally. Moreover, he reasons that these methods of increasing efficiency in the near future should be led by a desire to crop the environmental impact of tall- in put agriculture and in doing so, allow reduce strains on the environment.Smils investigation al depleteds him to arrive at a roughly warily optimistic conclusion where he believes that a sphere population of ten billion as predicted by the UN to be the stabilizing human population can in item be sufficiently fed without excessive damage to the biosphere through the means of a to a greater extent efficient food system. This optimistic conclusion is predominately cemented by the concept of frugal slack existing in the present-day production structures and that the discover that this slack can be reduced is quite good. However, this reduction of economic slack standpoint ask the challenging task of creating workings nurture and associated research capabilities in order to supply deliver original and useful equipment to deprived farmersSmil wrote this book not only to inform readers but as well to counter around of the arguments made by former(a) authors who have to a fault written to express their views on the trouble of feeding the world in the near future. Smil, as is made evident through the arguments he presents in his book, does not sh ar catastrophist or techno- optimist views, the latter of which advocate technology as the key for solving the dilemma. Smil argues that in an effort to gain public caution of the current state of agriculture and of the global food stock, catastrophists tend to express and exacerbate relatively short and temporary periods of decline or stasis in order to express their concerns but these concerns, as Smil explains ar often misplaced and that perfectly non-catastrophic explanations such as weather and changing policies for fertilizer subsidies, provide prices or diets can serve to counter well-nigh arguments catastrophists present. Smil does agree with catastrophists in the smack that population ineluctably to be stabilized but this stability, gibe to Smil will happen eventually and the world will in fact be able to feed the individuals at this stable point with miserable impacts on the environment.Smil does not make an effort to find a plaza ground between the catastrophes as he experimental trails Lester Brown and capital of Minnesota Ehrlich and ebullient lemon yellowucopian as he calls Julian Simon equivalent many anticipate but rather attempts a serious evaluation utilizing the best science applicable to the inquiries being dealt with.First Chapter Reasons for concernLooks at the growing population.Even though its slowing dramatically, the UN predicts the world populatin wll reach 9.9 billion by 2050 in the fair variant scenario, an increase of 48% from 1999. Dietary transitions, Smil argues will add to food demands. This phenomenon is where rising incomes created by economic growth in poor countries unveil dramatic changes in diet.There is a decrease in staple perforate consumption and a substantial increase in meat and former(a) animal products consumed, accompani ed by a rise in kernel fat consumption. In other words, even with the slowing of population growth, in addition to the continuing demand for staple commodities, the increased demand for foods such as milk, eggs, meat, vegetables, and so on will require continued growth in output.Second ChapterAppraises the biophysical basis of agriculture and stresses the importance of microbial ecology of the malicious gossip. Smil acknowledges the use and importance of synthetic fertilizers by stating that only food for 2-3 billion people could have been produced without them, depending on the diets of the general populations. Alternative or complete agriculture on a wide scale basis could aid?This might be a final result but can argue against their respective uses and whether they will really booster or not. C4 crops which include corn argon to a greater extent photosynthetically efficient than C3 crops that include wheat and rice. This is a solution should we plant more corn? Availabilit y of land, body of water and nutrients will be adequate on a global basis. However, regional disparities/ scarcities will be made much worse by anthropogenic climate change. Can link to the point of climate change impact on agriculture tight to accessThird ChapterFocuses on the environmental impacts of agriculture. Soil corroding and its effects on yield. Loss of topsoil is often cited as having a major negative impact on food- growing capacity, but how stalwart is the enjoin that degradation- induced productivity losses are rising? The problem whitethorn be real and urgent in many regions for exemplar in large parts of Africa the annual soil degradation equates to millions of calculated tons of grains and tubers lost per year. But from a global perspective, the losses may not be significant.The view that emerges from Smils account is that the inputs and assumptions underlying calculations of global resources are in many cases debatable. The variations in estimates give comfo rt that the world as a whole probably has the resources to adapt to demand and produce sufficient food. Fortunately there is nothing inevitable about excessive erosion (p. 78).Qualitative soil degradation and how best to primary(prenominal)tain soil productivity. Solution Modern high yielding crop varieties are just aboutwhat less sensitive to soil and climate conditions than the farmer- selected varieties- take advantage of this and plant more modern crop varieties. However, these modern crop varieties have not to the full escaped the Darwinian features associated with natural selection. This means that im prove varieties desirable to one region in India are not suited to other region.Environmental pollution from pesticides and fertilizer. Even though Smil hyped it up, it can lead to negatives when utilize in excess. Nitrate concentrations are quite high in the Rhine and other major rivers in Europe. Smil points this out but fails to mention that the heavy fertilizer applica tions in Europe are encouraged by the subsidies of the Common tillage Policy. This failure to mention this fact stems from his reluctance to thread upon political waters.It is difficult to predict the effect of global warming on agriculture referable to its building complexity and the dynamic nature of its impact.A solution the yield loss ascribable to heat and moisture stress maybe, at least, partly, offset by the sweetening of photosynthesis and higher water use efficiency.Usually, books on world food prospects are influenced not only by their sources of information but as well as by then innate optimism/ pessimism of the author, often to the highest degree apparent in chapters on the environmental changes wrought by agriculture. However, from this chapter, Smil emerges not only as a stern judge but as a long destination optimist. For sheath, there is no shortage of preventive measures for dealing with nearly all of these concerns (p 66)Fourth ChapterHere, Smil expresses the core of his vision that agricultural output can be increased through improved efficiency without additional inputs, except for knowledge and genetic enhancement. His ideas are similar in many regards to those of precision agriculture. Smil states that the capital task for agricultural research is not to make every plant transgenic, but rather to come up with more precise solutions for coun fork out (pp. 138-39).Precision farming is information- intensive and involves optimizing the timing and amount of inputs. He focuses on the smash use of fertilizer and water. Fertilizer can be employ more efficiently with better timing and placement, recycling of crop residues and better crop rotation.It is estimated that around 15% of the potassium, 30% of the nitrogen and 40% of the phosphorous is replaced by fertilizers. However, there is a critical need to increase fertilizer use in sub- Saharan Africa. Soil fertilizer is declining there and crop yields falling because of insufficien t use of fertilizer. African soil and rainfall make much of the continent subpar for growing food. Despite this, the price of fertilizer in Africa is often two to four clock that of the world price. In other words, the region that probably needs fertilizer the most has to pay the most for it. This input problem cannot be fixed through Smils ideology, which is to a great extent against the increase of inputs to solve the dilemma of feeding the world. In order to start out the high prices of fertilizer which results in large because of poor infrastructure and art networks that are not actual enough to create a low- personify and competitive market, one must invest in them.There are enormous opportunities to improve the efficiency of water use. Possibilities include growing more water- efficient crops and water conservation exertions such as reduced tillage. inappropriate energy, water once used, can be reused afterwards its quality is revitalize by appropriate discourse. Th ere is a need to increase water supplies especially in some arid areas, but water product and the use of saline water should be used extensively. Water is chiefly wasted because it is underpriced.In India, payments for electricity for philia irrigation are by pump size at very low grade and there are many illegal hook-ups that make it free.On the other hand, in Israel, about 60% of irrigation was by drip systems by 1990, with very high rates of efficiency. Which is a major reason water use could drop 30% and crop yields per unit of water application doubled. Reasons against drip irrigationMore, generally, what Smil is advocating is the substitution of progressively plentiful capital and knowledge for increasingly scarce natural resources. ordinal ChapterExplores ways to improve animal efficiency of animal food production. Although go through animal products is fundamentally inefficient compared to vegetarianism, in a fascinating interrogatory of human evolution, Smil sees a c ase for 10- 20 kg of meat in the average annual diet of humans, a level which is far exceeded in affluent countries. Close to half of all cereal grains produced globally are now fed to animals. Smil calculates the feed efficiency of different animals per unit of eatable product.The most efficient is milk, followed by herbivorous fish, eggs, and chicken, with beef being least efficient Eat and produce less beef?Aquaculture advocates. Fish yields on continental shelves is, on average two orders of magnitude higher, and that of ponds is ten times higher still. However, narrow genetic basis is a challenge to aquaculture the practise is dominated by a handful of freshwater herbivores and the contribution from marine species serenitys on even fewer carnivores. Smil believes that transgenic fishes may offer many advantages by growing faster and by tolerating cooler or warmer waters. For example salman with an anti- freeze protein gene from the winter flounder is already available which allows them to drive is very cold environmentsSixth ChapterOpportunities to reduce post- harvest losses, which may be as high as 40% and more for some African crops. Smil notes how little attention has been given to post- harvest losses and that there is not a single national or international organization that focuses all on the topic. Insect pests and plant pathogens, which account for huge losses in some conditions should be a target. China for example, suffers heavily from post- harvest losses resulting from improper storage of crops (roughly one- seventh of its cereal harvest every year), low efficiency of animal feedingSeventh ChapterDiscusses human nutrition needs and how our understanding of them has evolved. Global average per capita energy requirements are about 2000-2100 calories daily, much less than the estimated supply of 2800. So malnutrition is the result of unequal assess ordinal ChapterExamines the dietary transition in detail and considers what the available ev idence suggests would be an optimum diet. Smil agrees with others who have concluded that traditional Mediterranean diets, with lots of complex carbohydrates, fruits and vegetables and moderate amounts of meat, are the healthiest.Ninth ChapterDeals with the question of Who will feed China asked by Lester Brown by saying that the Chinese will. Smil makes it clear that China clearly has the potential to feed its future population. A junto of well-proven economic and technical fixes, environmental protection measures, and dietary adjustments can rive enough food from Chinas agroeconomic systems to provide decent nutrition during the next genesis s without weakening the countrys environmental foundations. (p. 315)China provides an excellent country to attempt in detail because of the constraints faced, the widespread opportunities for improved efficiencies and the implications for the rest of the world leash to the idea of if China can do it, so can the rest of the worldWater short age is becoming an increasing problem in Northern China and there are vast plans to move water from the South to the North. However, water in China is substrantially underpriced like in India and olibanum used wastefully. Smil has a wonderful example of water in capital of Red China costing only a fifth as much as in Winnipeg, which is his home and has plentiful water supplies.Smil to a fault provides ample evidence that the amount of farmland in China has been substantially undercounted, and indeed the yields are lower than what they could be and the room for yield improvement is considerably greatSmil appeals to the suffer with the energy price increases in the 1970s to show that producers and consumers did reduce inefficiencies in energy production and use when price incentives were provided to them familiar distress hinderance A illustration StudySexual Trauma Intervention A Case StudyResponding to Sexual Trauma Sandras CaseEffects of cozy psychic combat injurySexual infracts have severe quick and similarly long-lasting effects which can be devastating on the emotional, on the physical and also the relational health of the sexual infringement victims (Gilliland James, 2013). The overwhelming stress of sexual assault normally alters ain adjustment, the psychobiology and the systems of the victims. A traumatic experience usually impacts the entire person how we learn, how we think, our way of think things and the feelings about ourselves, how we feel about others and our ability to make sense in the world. All the above factors are rooted in our psychobiological development and also in our experience of human evolutionary (Gilliland James, 2013).Sexual assault trauma can affect persons adjustment in all levels, posttraumatic stress disorder is a very disabling and chronic condition and the magnitude of posttraumatic stress disorder is extremely high after rape. Just like Sandra, rape victims are likely to suffer from a severe depression, be come substance ill-usagers and make suicidal attempts. In the case of Sandra, she seeks counselling because she was depressed, after several sessions she discloses that she was raped by her uncle from an age of 4 to 9 and she also experienced two other rape cases while in high school and these trauma experiences made her to be completely depressed.Sandra had also developed substance problems. As she discloses, she spend most of her time drunk from the age of 18-22. As a result of PTSD she ended up quiescence with several men because she was traumatized and depressed after undergoing several rape experiences. Sandra also discloses several suicide attempts she had one suicidal attempt but fortuitously the car tire blew out before she reached her target. This is one of the effects of sexual assault to Sandra. She is a survivor of child sexual abuse and this makes her penetrable to re-victimization. Victims of sexual assaults tend to be impotent, helpless and hopeless (Walker, 1994 ). This explains why Sandra slept with more than 70 men in order to avoid feeling supplyless and helpless. Thus, Sandras behaviour is an outcome of sexual assaults.Intervention strategiesPsychoeducationalEffective interference for Sandras case includes psycho-educational intervention strategy. Although this approach alone does not fully eliminate the symptoms in the long term, it has proved to be the most effective when combined with anxiety management strategy. Rape victims usually feel more relieved when they realise that they are not crazy, but are experiencing PTSD manifestations, which is a reaction experienced by most raped women. I advocate for the use of this intervention strategy in the preaching of Sandra since she needs to accept understand that her symptoms as response to trauma but not pathology (Hunter, 2009). This will enable her strengthen self-esteem and also boost her sense of self-worth. As Sandra needs to raise her daughter the use of this method will help her identify inner strengths which were not disrupted by the trauma, including perseverance, the coping skills and intellect (Kress, Trippany, Nolan, 2003).Cognitive Therapy Intervention StrategyThis intervention strategy is most appropriate when addressing symptoms such as shame, loss of interest in circumstantial activities, detachment, numbing and guilty (Hunter, 2009). While using this method the victims are deft on how to identify the beliefs and particular thoughts which they experience during the state of negative emotions. In this intervention strategy, the victim is assisted in evaluating challenges and validity of various ideas and hence replaces most irrational beliefs with the more rational as well as with beneficial thoughts. I would use this intervention strategy in the treatment of Sandra as it will help her stop maladaptive beliefs that all her familymembers are abusers and hence replace it with positive thought. This method will also help her to challenge self-blam e and the blame which is perpetuated by her mother and the significant others (Kress, Trippany, Nolan, 2003).Cognitive therapy treatment is normally designed in a manner that it assists victims to restore their personal ply disrupted during the assault (Walker, 1994). Since all the perpetrators use violence and power, women tend to view all power related issues as negative. This refrains victim from gaining personal power. Cognitive therapy on Sandra will enable her replace the negative views of power and control with positive beliefs of adequate power. As a result, Sandra will gain courage to so stop using substances and hence use her power to control her life as well as that of her daughter.Cultural, legal and honest issuesWomen reaction to sexual assault should be considered within sociocultural context. To some extent, rape is not just a crime of sex and should be further conceptualized as part of crime of power. Sandras rape case is one of the patriarchal system tools which demonstrate gender inequality as well as devaluation of women in the society (Vonk, 1999). Sandras rape experience restricts her freedom and ability to use power. Although most feminists examine rape on the lines of power and gender, various cultural variables such as class and ethnicity are keys factors in womens response as well as the trauma recovery. Factors to consider include her cultural differences while accessing the services, the feelings she have while report the crime, and how her community receives rapes disclosures (Vonk, 1999). Perpetrators of rape should be given heavy penalties including life term sentences.If Sandra was a male victimThe effects of sexual trauma are more severe on female than in men. However, in some instances some men find it challenging to recover from the sexual assault trauma. Men become more ineffectual and hopeless when sexually assaulted than women, a man will do anything just to avoid feeling powerless and if Sandra was a man he could poss ibly turn away from the victims role and assume the victimizers role. This is one of main effects of sexual trauma in male as they try to identify themselves with the power of their victimizers (Hunter, 2009). Notably, men becomes more addicted and attracted to substance abuse than women. In that regard, if Sandra was a male, it could be difficult for her to stop substance abuse. anthropoid victims are also likely to seek ravage on their perpetrators more than the female victims (Kress, Trippany, Nolan, 2003). Thus, in addition to psychoeducational and cognitive therapy intervention strategies, exposure therapy has proved to be more appropriate. This strategy assist victims to overcome the painful memories encountered during the assault. It is done by confronting the victim with specific emotions, situation and thoughts which are related to the incidence of rape (Walker, 1994). Male victims are more likely to recount feelings, thoughts as well as the memories and hence, a well-stru ctured approach will be more appropriate in helping male victims face these realities.ReferencesGilliland, B. E., James, R. K. (2013). Crisis intervention strategies. paginate 194Hunter, S. V. (2009). Beyond Surviving Gender Differences in Response to Early Sexual Experiences With Adults. Journal of family issues, 30(3), 391-412.Kress, V. E. W., Trippany, R. L., Nolan, J. M. (2003). Responding to sexual assault victims Considerations for college counsellors. Journal of College Counselling, 6(2), 124133.Vonk, M. E. (1999). An ethic of care A framework for ethical decision making with survivors of sexual assault. Social Thought, 19(1), 49-62.Walker, L. E. (1994). step women and survivor therapy A practical guide for the psychotherapist. American Psychological Association.